Scientific Method

Scientific Method

The process of the scientific method involves making conjectures (hypotheses), deriving predictions from them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions. A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. A method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses. Application of the scientific method to the investigation of relationships among natural phenomenon, or to solve a medical or technical problem.

1. Problem-solving: Step-by-step approach consisting of

(1) identifying and defining a problem,

(2) accumulating relevant data, 

(3) formulating a tentative hypothesis, 

(4) conducting experiments to test the hypothesis, 

(5) interpreting the results objectively, and 

(6) repeating the steps until an acceptable solution is found.

2. Sciences

A rigorous, systematic approach, designed to eliminate bias and other subjective influences in the search, identification, and measurement or validation of facts and cause-effect relationships, and from which scientific laws may be deduced.

classification of scientific research

Scientific research can be classified in several ways. Classification can be made according to the data collection techniques based on causality, relationship with time and the medium through which they are applied.

According to data collection techniques:

Observational

Experimental

According to causality relationships:

Descriptive

Analytical

According to relationships with time:

Retrospective

Prospective

Cross-sectional

According to the medium through which they are applied:

Clinical

Laboratory

Social descriptive research

A method of research in which a problem is identified, relevant data are gathered, a hypothesis is formulated from these data, and the hypothesis is empirically tested. A method of investigation in which a problem is first identified and observations, experiments, or other relevant data are then used to construct or test hypotheses that purport to solve it The principles and empirical processes of discovery and demonstration considered characteristic of or necessary for scientific investigation, generally involving the observation of phenomena, the formulation of a hypothesis concerning the phenomena, experimentation to demonstrate the truth or falseness of the hypothesis, and a conclusion that validates or modifies the hypothesis.

The process of observing, asking questions, and seeking answers through tests and experiments is not unique to any one field of science. In fact, the scientific method is applied broadly in science, across many different fields. Many empirical sciences, especially the social sciences, use mathematical tools borrowed from probability theory and statistics, together with outgrowths of these, such as decision theory, game theory, utility theory, and operations research. Philosophers of science have addressed general methodological problems, such as the nature of scientific explanation and the justification of induction.

The scientific method is critical to the development of scientific theories, which explain empirical (experiential) laws in a scientifically rational manner. In a typical application of the scientific method, a researcher develops a hypothesis, tests it through various means, and then modifies the hypothesis on the basis of the outcome of the tests and experiments. The modified hypothesis is then retested, further modified, and tested again, until it becomes consistent with observed phenomena and testing outcomes. In this way, hypotheses serve as tools by which scientists gather data. From that data and the many different scientific investigations undertaken to explore hypotheses, scientists are able to develop broad general explanations or scientific theories.

https://www.britannica.com/science/scientific-method

Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative research

What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative research? 

In a nutshell, quantitative research generates numerical data or information that can be converted into numbers. Qualitative Research, on the other hand, generates non-numerical data.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research. Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the problem. Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured techniques. Some common methods include focus groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and participation/observations. The sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfil a given quota.

Qualitative research is considered to be particularly suitable for exploratory research (e.g. during the pilot stage of a research project, for example). It is primarily used to discover and gain an in-depth understanding of individual experiences, thoughts, opinions, and trends, and to dig deeper into the problem at hand. The data collection toolkit of a qualitative researcher is quite versatile, ranging from completely unstructured to semi-structured techniques. The most commonly applied qualitative methods include individual interviews, group discussions (focus groups), and behavioural observations.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into usable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviours, and other defined variables – and generalize results from a larger sample population. Quantitative Research uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. Quantitative data collection methods are much more structured than Qualitative data collection methods. Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of surveys – online surveys, paper surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and systematic observations. Simply put, quantitative research is all about numbers and figures. It is used to quantify opinions, attitudes, behaviours, and other defined variables with the goal to support or refute hypotheses about a specific phenomenon, and potentially contextualize the results from the study sample in a wider population (or specific groups). As quantitative research explicitly specifies what is measured and how it is measured in order to uncover patterns in for example – behaviour, motivation, emotion, and cognition, quantitative data collection is considered to be much more structured than qualitative methods.

https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-quantitative-research/

Definition - What does Digital Divide mean?

The digital divide refers to the difference between people who have easy access to the Internet and those who do not. A lack of access is believed to be a disadvantage to those on the disadvantaged side of the digital divide because of the huge knowledge base that can only be found online.

Techopedia explains the Digital Divide

The digital divide appears in a number of different contexts, including:

• Differences between rural and urban Internet access


• Socioeconomic differences between people of different races, income, and education that affects their ability to access the Internet


• Differences between developed, developing and emerging nations in terms of the availability of Internet

The digital divide was once used to describe different rates of technology adoption by different groups. In recent times, however, Internet access has increasingly been seen as the primary advantage that many technologies can grant in that it represents a staggering store of knowledge and resources. In this sense, the digital divide may be shrinking as cheaper mobile devices proliferate and network coverage improves worldwide.

Different types of research methodologies used by educational researchers

Different types of research methodologies used by educational researchers

Action Research

Action research is a research methodology (a type of research strategy) that can incorporate a range of different data collection and analysis techniques“Action research implies no specific methods of inquiry. Methods are context-bound and will be operationally shaped in the light of the problems that are presented in the context. Action research has no distinctive methodological characteristics..." (Elliott, 2005: 370) Elliott, J. (2005). Becoming critical: the failure to connect. Educational Action Research.

Case Study

A case study in a common methodology used in educational research, and there are many published studies in education which are considered by their authors to be case studies.
Characteristics of case study:

A case study is by its nature idiographic work, and usually tends to be interpretive."Studies such as these build upon the analysis of single settings or occurrences. They treat each case as empirically distinct and, in contrast, to survey analysis, do not automatically presume that different instances can be thrown together to form a homogenous aggregate." (Hamilton, 1980, p.79.)

Hamilton, David (1980).Some contrasting assumptions about case study research and survey analysis, in Simons, Helen (ed.) Towards a Science of the Singular: Essays about Case Study in Educational Research and Evaluation, Norwich: Centre for Applied Research in Education, UEA.

A case study is a methodology used to explore a particular instance in detail …The instance has to be identifiable as having clear boundaries and could be a lesson, the teaching of a scheme of work in a school department, a university teaching department, a group visit to a museum by one class of students, etc. … Although case study looks at an identifiable instance, it is normally naturalistic, exploring the case in its usual context, rather than attempting to set up a clinical setting - which would often not be viable even if considered useful, as often the case is embedded in its natural context in ways that influence its characteristics (so moving a teacher and a class from their normal setting, to a special research classroom in a university, for example, is likely to change behaviours that would be exhibited in the ‘natural’ setting).” Taber, K. S. (2014). Methodological issues in science education research: a perspective from the philosophy of science. In M. R. Matthews (Ed.), International Handbook of Research in History, Philosophy and Science Teaching (Vol. 3, pp. 1839-1893). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.

Ethnography

Ethnography is an overall research strategy - a methodology - employed in developing some research designs. Ethnographic research is naturalistic and employs data collection techniques such as participant observation and interviews undertaken in the ‘verstehen’ tradition. Ethnography is an approach drawing upon anthropology, which attempts to make sense of a particular culture or group in its own terms: that is to understand the meaning the individuals in that culture of group assign to certain rituals or cultural practices Whilst, ethnographies, that is detailed accounts produced by ethnographic methodology, are relatively rare, if not excluded. in science education, studies which draw on ethnographic approaches and perspectives are quite common.” Thinking Allowed Ethnography Award Shortlist’ concerns “The Ethnography award 'shortlist': Thinking Allowed, in association with the British Sociological Association, presents a special programme devoted to the academic research which has been shortlisted for our third annual award for a study that has made a significant contribution to ethnography, the in-depth analysis of the everyday life of a culture or subculture.”

Observation

Observation is a common data collection technique. There are different kinds of observation, so we might better think of observation as a family of techniques, suitable for adoption within a range of research methodologies. Observation is therefore adopted as part of many research designs. Two key ways in which research observation can vary is (a) in the role of the researcher, interns of the stance they present to those observed (and related to this, the extent to which observation is naturalistic or interventionist); and (b) in the level of structure imposed upon the observation process. A Beginner’s Guide to Observations.pdf was produced by educational research students as part of a constructionist class activity.

Types of Research Methods According to the Purpose of the Study

According to the purpose of the study, types of research methods can be divided into two categories: applied research and fundamental research. Applied research is also referred to as action research, and fundamental research is sometimes called basic or pure research. The table below summarizes the main differences between applied research and fundamental research. Similarities between applied and fundamental (basic) research relate to the adoption of a systematic and scientific procedure to conduct the study.

http://people.ds.cam.ac.uk/kst24/EdResMethod/Methodology.html

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